annual parasite index

However, the development of an effective protective immunity has also been noted in other areas of the world with lower, but stable levels of transmission (Baird, 1995; Baird, et al., 1998; Branch et al., 2005). When the API was less than 1 per 10,000, the consolidation phase started and comprehensive use of prevention was in theory stopped. Symptoms usually begin ten to fifteen days after being bitten by an infected mosquito. It is likely that high API values are not directly influenced by FFI values, which are responsible for infection rates in Tak and Mae Hong Son provinces (arrows). What does API stand for? Hugh J.W. NOT (Animals/not (Animals/and Humans/)) → 382 retrieved hits, Cochrane: (MeSH descriptor: [Climate Change] explode all trees OR ((climat* OR ‘global warming’ OR seasonality):ti,ab,kw)) AND (MeSH descriptor: [Temperature] explode all trees OR temperature:ti,ab,kw) AND (MeSH descriptor: [Malaria] explode all trees OR (malaria OR anopheles OR ‘plasmodium falciparum’ OR ‘plasmodium vivax’ OR ‘plasmodium malariae’ OR ‘plasmodium ovale’ OR ‘plasmodium knowlesi’ OR ‘annual parasite index’ OR ‘annual parasite incidence'):ti,ab,kw) → 6 retrieved hits, Scopus: (TITLE-ABS-KEY(“climate change” OR climat* OR “global warming” OR seasonality)) AND (TITLE-ABS-KEY(temperature)) AND (TITLE-ABS-KEY(malaria OR anopheles OR “plasmodium falciparum” OR “plasmodium vivax” OR “plasmodium malariae” OR “plasmodium ovale” OR “plasmodium knowlesi” OR “annual parasite index” OR “annual parasite incidence”)) AND NOT ((animal* OR …) AND NOT (human* OR patient*)) → 852 retrieved hits, Adisak Bhumiratana, ... Suntorn Pimnon, in Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 2013, In the context of public health, all stakeholders should understand how substantially the interrelations of ecological, sociological and economical aspects of sustainable development can determine a provision of broadly defined health care services and disease management put in place for the local agricultural workers, especially within the rubber forestry sector. For each province, the MMR is mathematically expressed as newly reported malaria patients diagnosed within a year by health care providers divided by the midyear population multiplied by 100,000. Asia-Pacific. This is particularly true in West Africa where P. vivax may be virtually absent due to the high prevalence of the Duffy negative phenotype, which precludes erythrocyte invasion by P. vivax (see “P. For parasites transmitted by bite, the arthropod midgut provides the most important barrier. However, with the implementation of the 2006–2015 National Malaria Control Programme (NMEP), increased support provided by the central and local governments improved the malaria control status. More complex estimates of parasite movement and vulnerability can be inferred from human movement data and transmission models [37,73]. Xiao-Nong Zhou, ... Wei-Zhong Yang, in Advances in Parasitology, 2014. The use of mosquito-nets is debated in relation to the occupational risks to better understand the spatial and temporal patterns of malaria risk. Some evidence supports the fact that, as a result of land cover/land use changes, more rubber plantations have created dynamic situations of emergence and re-emergence of malaria in Southeast Asia and regions of South and West Africa.10,15–19 In this regard, the local vulnerable population, including rubber farmers and workers themselves, are integral components of ecosystems that can shape malaria transmission dynamics in areas surrounding rubber plantations. Towards the end of attack phase, parasite prevalence was deemed impractical to monitor effectively and malaria incidence became the key monitoring metric. Alternatively, 20–25% of general workers or agricultural workers contract the disease. API is defined as annual parasite indexes rarely. The incidence rate was above 1 per 10,000 in only 87 counties, indicating that P.R. BROADER CONCEPT. Right panel: When excluding these observations, there is a statistically significant linear relationship between the two metrics (adjusted R2 = 0.503, P = 0.049). The irregularity of transmission may result in greater intervals between infection precluding the development or maintenance of effective protective immunity. Differentiated from imported, congenital, or blood-borne malaria. The measurement of Macdonald's stability index demands detailed entomological data that are rarely available. Indeed, this challenge does not reflect the effectiveness of NMCP implementation. For the years of available data, Dijbouti, Saudi Arabia and Yemen reported ADMIN1 level data, Namibia reported from a mix of ADMIN1 and ADMIN2 units, and South Africa and Swaziland had data available at the ADMIN2 level. Cell phone data, where available, can help to generate estimates of population movement between areas including linkages between areas without transmission and those with transmission [36,37]. Parasite risk assesment with integrated tools in EU fish production value chains. Fourth, technical bottlenecks are another obstacle on the way to malaria elimination (Yan et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013a). Worldwide, P. vivax and P. falciparum are the most common of the four human malarias. P. ovale has the most limited distribution; occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, in the region of New Guinea and in parts of the Philippines and Southeast Asia (Carter and Mendis, 2002; Collins and Jeffery, 2005; Lysenko and Beljaev, 1969). Note that in this analysis, a covariate such as differences in socioeconomic status among the 26 sites included in the data set could influence both rates of malarial infection and all-cause mortality. The data were obtained from household surveys in 2010 in Chaiyarat Sub-district, Bang Saphan Noi District, Prachuap Khiri Khan, one of top ten malaria-endemic provinces of Thailand. Due to their occupational risk, farmers or adults that are engaged in agricultural work are at the greatest risk for malaria infection and normally account for 30–40% of cases. Annual parasite index data were aggregated at a variety of administrative levels. As a result, countrywide data are usually assembled by determining the annual parasite incidence (Branch et al., 2005) defined as the annual number of parasite-specific local malarial infections by geographic unit (Guerra et al., 2006, 2007, 2008). The landscape classes include forestland, evergreen forest (e.g., hilly, perennial, moist, dry or mixed), mixed deciduous forest, dry dipterocarp forest, tropical pine forest, bamboo forest, mangrove forest, swamp forest, beach forest, secondary or disturbed forest, forested plantations (e.g., rubber, oil palm, teak and eucalyptus), highland agriculture, field crops (e.g., pineapple and corn), orchards and mixed orchards, paddy field, shrimp farm, shellfish farm, urban and built-up land, water bodies and all other uses. With the progressive move from malaria control to elimination, the World Health Organisation (WHO) released guidelines to support countries aiming for malaria elimination (Kelly et al., 2012; Mendis et al., 2009; WHO, 2007). By 2009, the national incidence of malaria dropped to 14,000 cases, and the incidence rate was lower than 1 per 10,000 in 95% of the counties (cities, districts) in 24 malaria-endemic provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) (Zhou et al., 2011). In some classification systems, spleen rates in young children have been incorporated into the determination of endemicity but this system is not used commonly at the present time. Relationship between all-cause mortality rate in early childhood and P. falciparum malaria transmission intensity in Africa. The MMRs for the ten-top malaria-endemic provinces are closely associated with the annual parasite incidences (APIs), suggesting that, at the provincial level, there must be fluctuating numbers of local people affected with, or at risk of, malaria infections. Therefore, if the blood feeding frequency is 2 days and if 50% of host-seeking vectors feed on humans, a = (1/2 days) × (0.5) = 0.25. It is responsible for around 50% of all malaria cases. This will provide more information for determining the roadmap of the national malaria elimination campaign in P.R. Thus far, it has been well established that malaria transmission in Thailand is caused by two main parasites, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, and to a very lesser extent by Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale. In practice, P = (parity rate)1/g, where g is the length of the gonotrophic cycle. Institut für Zoomorphologie, Zellbiologie und Parasitologie, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27769-6, Reference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences. What does API stand for? According to WHO guidelines, a blood slide positivity rate (SPR) among febrile patients lower than 5% is an indicator of preelimination, while an annual parasite incidence (API) among the at-risk population for 3 consecutive years without local infection below 1 per 1000 indicates achievement of the elimination stage (Clements et al., 2013; Cotter et al., 2013). Both are prevalent throughout much of the tropical regions of South and Southeast Asia, the Western Pacific and Latin America, with P. vivax often the predominant species. Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Since the founding of P.R. For the years reported, which varied by country, six countries (Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Nicaragua and Suriname) reported data at the first administrative (ADMIN1) level and Venezuela reported data at the ADMIN1 and ADMIN2 level. The estimation of genetic differentiation between populations inferred from the fixation index, Fst) ... collaboration initiated in 2013 consisting in active participations of the project coordinator and WP leaders in Annual Workshops of NRLs hosted by the ERLP. China. API emphasizes clinical malaria and provides less information on the potentially large number of asymptomatic infections that may be present. White blood cells are indirectly and relatively used in microscopy to estimate the density of malaria parasite infections. There is concern that global warming could abruptly expand the range of malaria transmission by increasing vector populations at higher altitudes and by shortening the duration of the sporogonic cycle in the mosquito, which is temperature-dependent (Munga et al., 2006; Patz and Olson, 2006). Receptivity refers to the overall transmission potential of an area based upon the presence and abundance of anopheline vectors and ecological and climatic conditions permitting parasite development [63]. API = (confirmed cases during 1 year/population under surveillance) x 1000. Malaria annual parasite index maps of India by malaria control unit areas, 1965-1976 by Rais Aktar, unknown edition, Figure 65.5. Lena Fischer, ... Patricia Schlagenhauf, in Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 2020, Embase: (‘climate change'/exp OR ‘climate change':ti, ab OR climat*:ti, ab OR ‘global warming':ti, ab OR seasonality:ti,ab) AND (‘temperature'/exp OR temperature:ti,ab) AND (‘malaria'/exp OR malaria:ti, ab OR anopheles:ti, ab OR ‘plasmodium falciparum':ti, ab OR ‘plasmodium vivax':ti, ab OR ‘plasmodium malariae':ti, ab OR ‘plasmodium ovale':ti, ab OR ‘plasmodium knowlesi':ti, ab OR ‘annual parasite index':ti, ab OR ‘annual parasite incidence':ti,ab) NOT ([animals]/lim NOT [humans]/lim) → 485 retrieved hits, Medline: (exp Climate Change/or (climat* or global warming or seasonality).ti,ab.) Therefore C= 2.5 × 0.48, or 1.2 parasite transmissions per infective host per day. However, the burden remains in malaria-endemic provinces along the border areas. Failure of a blood-fed arthropod to become infected with or transmit a parasite may be attributed to the presence of one or more barriers to infection. Mehlhorn H. (2015) Annual Parasite Index. These values were calculated as the incidence of malaria per 1,000 residents. Vectorial capacity is expressed by the formula: where C is the vectorial capacity as new infections per infection per day, ma is the bites per human per day, a is the human biting habit, P is the probability of daily survival, and n is the extrinsic incubation period (in days). This term is defined by the number of clearly diagnosed malaria cases in a special region during one year per total number of humans multiplicated by 1,000. Part of Springer Nature. PvAPI data were available from 4443 risk units in Asia. Malaria annual parasite index maps of India by malaria control unit areas, 1965-1976 This edition was published in 1979 by (Open University, Faculty of Social Sciences) in (Milton Keynes) ((Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA)). Critical to the planning of malaria elimination during the GMEP was a quantitative description of risk for planning control and monitoring progress. First, some areas of the country are still seriously endemic, such as border areas of Yunnan province adjacent to Myanmar (Bi et al., 2013). Another approach to characterizing malaria epidemiology focuses on the continuity of transmission and resulting patterns of clinical immunity, defining three categories: (1) stable malaria (2) unstable malaria, and (3) epidemic malaria (Carter and Mendis, 2002). It is likely that frequent human-vector contact in and around rubber plantations increase malaria risk because the blood-feeding Anopheles vectors, including An. Not logged in minimus and An. White blood cells count (WBCc) is a bedrock in the estimation of malaria parasite density in malaria field trials, interventions and patient management. annual parasite index . The latter is formally measured by tallying new-onset parasitemia in cohorts of drug-cleared volunteers followed prospectively for a defined period, but as this is labor intensive, costly, and entails risks for the volunteers, incidence is usually approximated by the easier-to-measure, closely related entomologic inoculation rate (EIR), which is the number of infective bites received per person per year (Beier et al., 1994). Box plot showing median , 25%, 75% quartile ranges around the median (box depth), and upper and lower limits of all-cause childhood mortality per 1000 children aged 0–4 years per annum at four transmission intensities. Romi et al. A number of other studies have produced maps of predicted anopheline density based upon models of larval data, human biting rates, and satellite-derived remotely sensed data [68,69]. The conduct of point prevalence surveys to measure prevalence, of prospective cleared-cohort studies to measure incidence or of nocturnal mosquito landing collections to measure EIR can be impractical for characterizing the malaria burden across a nation. Due to its geographically wide distribution, this latter species is important for epidemiology and vector control.19,24,25 Malaria affects all age groups but appears to be gender-specific; male patients are twofold more prevalent than female patients. P. malariae is also widespread across the tropics, often occurring in sympatry with other species and occasionally found to be the predominant species. China based on feasibility assessments, with an emphasis on potential transmission risks, the capacity of the professional team and the intensity of intervention (Cotter et al., 2013; Kidson and Indaratna, 1998; Moore et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2010). Vector competence is defined as the susceptibility of an arthropod species to infection with a parasite and its ability to transmit this acquired infection. Annual parasite index (API) according to age from 1997 to 2006. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27769-6_4515-1.RIS API figures are based on available medical intelligence, usually febrile malaria cases reported from health clinics supplemented with the results of surveys where blood smears are taken from residents with fever. API was originally set at 5 per 10,000, but experience showed that national programmes often overestimated the coverage and completeness of their surveillance. Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by a parasite. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. 3B seems to more effectively predict a direct relationship between the two metrics. Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan and Thailand provided data at the first administrative (ADMIN1) level. Conditions based on parasite prevalence lower than 1% become very difficult to measure and qualitatively represent unstable conditions. In stable malaria, a population is exposed to a fairly constant rate of malarial infection throughout the year, with at least one clinical infection experienced by most individuals on an annual basis. However, malaria elimination still faces many challenges in P.R. Katherine E. Battle, ... Simon I. Hay, in Advances in Parasitology, 2012. API - Annual Parasite Incidence. In contrast, teenagers and adults, although frequently infected, experience clinical malaria less frequently, and when they do, the symptoms are usually mild. Rubber forestry, in essence, creates a micro-climatic environment rather than a macro-climatic environment. Despite being widely used, measurement of EIR is practicable only in areas of high transmission [3]. Devastating malaria epidemics occurred in the early 1930s in South Africa (Sharp and le Sueur, 1996), in 1958 in Ethiopia (Fontaine et al., 1961), and in 1986 in Madagascar (Mouchet et al., 1998), and have been a recurrent feature in many areas with periodic excessive or failing rainfall, illustrated by the history of epidemics in India (Bouma and van der Kaay, 1996). As discussed earlier, the continuing malaria burden in the ten-top malaria-endemic provinces leads us to ask why the local people remain susceptible to malaria in spite of the fact that the NMCP has implemented extensive services and malaria control strategies. © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. API stands for annual parasite indexes. (B) Similar to the average MMRs, the average APIs of malaria patients in malaria transmission or at-risk areas are used to test the hypothesis that the average MMRs are related to the average APIs using a linear regression analysis regardless of the observations over time. These mosaic pattern classifications can be adjusted to reflect the vegetation index, which is often done for mixed forests such as those in Thailand. Annual Parasite Incidence (API) ~ Annual Parasite Incidence merupakan jumlah penderita malaria dengan konfirmasi laboratorium positif terhadap populasi di wilayah tertentu dan waktu tertentu per 1000 penduduk. 3B illustrates that the calculated values of the FFI are significantly and linearly related to the API. Second, elimination of malaria is a new public health task, so the government has no previous experience and weak capacity in the low- or medium-endemic areas, especially in resource-constrained settings (Xu and Liu, 2012). Therefore, only the total areas (km2) of forest patches and forest fringes containing rubber trees, oil palms, orchards and other forest plantations, which appear as shaded areas, are considered endemic with the Anopheles vector, and these areas are used in the calculation of the forest-fringe index (FFI). Using simulations and observational biomonitoring data from Spain, Diggle et al. The duration of the consolidation phase was highly variable (Russell, 1956), but migration to the maintenance phase was usually initiated after 3 years without local transmission. Even after dissemination to the salivary glands, the parasite may not be able to infect or be transmitted from the salivary glands due to the presence of salivary gland infection or salivary gland escape barriers, respectively. Parasites A-Z Index of Parasitic Names . Examples: NFL, NASA, PSP, HIPAA. Trends of endemic malaria in Thailand. With these epidemiologic figures, the NMCP initially implemented a vertically specialized program after 1951 that emphasized reduction of malaria morbidity and mortality rates by primarily making use of microscopically diagnosed case detection, treatment with antimalarial drugs and vector control with insecticides.7 These malaria control measures are specifically applied to or appropriately used in stratified control areas, i.e., in endemic areas where seasonal malaria transmission occurs regularly and in high risk areas where introduced transmission of malaria possibly occurs. Malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum infection was eliminated, with the exception of Yunnan and Hainan provinces. The API is more appropriately used as the outcome indicator to determine whether the forest and forest fringe are related to this metric (Fig. A serious threat to public health, malaria is a major parasitic disease hindering socioeconomic development in the People’s Republic of China (P.R.China) (Diouf et al., 2014; Laurentz, 1946; Tang et al., 1991). Myanmar and Nepal reported all data from ADMIN3 units. In this example, ma2 = 10 bites/human/night × 0.25 = 2.5; a is repeated because infected vectors must refeed to transmit. Annual parasite index data were aggregated at a variety of administrative levels. The ability to transmit may be expressed either as the percentage of feeding females that transmitted or the percentage of hosts that became infected. Receptivity has traditionally been operationalized using the basic reproductive number, Ro, to represent underlying transmission potential in the absence of control, and Rc, the reproductive number under control. Find. It may be the case that if there are more suitable methods used in the collection of needed data and the analysis of land cover/land use changes, the application of the FFI metric is the best option to measure the spatial-temporal distribution of malaria cases in endemic provinces. As transmission intensity rises further, there appears to be a plateau effect, with mortality rates associated with moderate-to-high endemicity areas (category 3, prevalence 51–74%) and with high-endemicity areas (category 4, prevalence 75–100%) similar to those associated with low-to-moderate endemicity areas. Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan and Thailand provided data at the first administrative (ADMIN1) level. Satitvipawee et al.7 analyzed the health-related behaviors of malaria-affected villagers in a transmission-prone rubber plantation area in relation to the performance of the Global Fund-supported malaria program. Figure 1. Vulnerability, by contrast, refers to the propensity of an area to exposure to new infections, via imported infections or infected mosquitoes [34,65]. The public health challenge of malaria prevention and risk reduction in these vulnerable populations is complex. In: Mehlhorn H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Parasitology. = Total positive x 100 / Total slides examined. Because it often is difficult to maintain natural vertebrate hosts in the laboratory and control the concentration of parasites in the peripheral circulatory system, laboratory hosts or artificial feeding systems frequently are used to expose the vector to the parasites.

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